Content Clauses

Linguistic Overview

All embedded clauses serve a particular grammatical role within their host clause. In the case of Content Clauses, they act as nominals (nouns, pronouns, etc.) and can be subjects, objects, or predicative nominals. Consider the following examples (the Content Clause is bold, and the crux is italicized):

“Yusef said that you had a question for me.”
“I wonder whether there is life on other planets.”
“How these cockroaches survived is a mystery.”
“Could you tell me where the restroom is, please?”
“I wish you had spoken up sooner.”

To understand the noun role of Content Clauses, it may help to replace some of the embedded clauses above with simpler noun phrases. For example, “Survival is a mystery,” or “Could you tell me the location of the restroom, please?” Here, ‘survival’ is a single-word noun, and ‘the location of the restroom’ is a noun phrase complete with a determiner and a modifying prepositional phrase. If the noun ‘survival’ can be replaced by ‘how these cockroaches survived’, and nominal phrase ‘the location of the restroom’ can be replaced by ‘where the restroom is’, then such Content Clauses must also function as nouns.

A pivotal feature of any Content Clause is its linker — called the complementizer by linguists, but which Insights to English refers to as the crux for three reasons:

The crux is the hinge upon which the Content Clause rests, both connecting it to the main clause and serving as a distinguishing element between the embedded and host clauses.
The crux is often the central theme of the sentence, or the idea that the sentence is ultimately about (especially when the crux is something other than that or the null linker).
It’s easier for English learners to pronounce and remember the word ‘crux’ than the word ‘complementizer’.

Form

The Crux

The conjunctions that begin Content Clauses and link them to their host clauses are traditionally called complementizers, but we refer to them as cruxes. The most common crux is that, but the linker used for any Content Clause depends first on the extent to which the details of the clause are known or questioned.

When the embedded clause is in the indicative mood (meaning it’s regarded as a particular incident that really occurs), that or [null] are used. The null linker (aka: the ’empty’ or ‘zero’ linker) simply means that no conjunction is spoken aloud or written.
- The null linker works best (taking the place of that) following cognitive verbs or speech verbs. Even when [null] is an option, the linker that can be used to clearify any uncertainty over the meaning wherever [null] might spark confusion.
When the reality of the embedded clause is unknown, whether or if are used.
- Whether and if are more-or-less interchangeable, but whether tends to be more ambiguous and less biased, whereas if leans toward the condition stated in the Content Clause.
When the embedded clause is desired or expected, for is used.
When the embedded clause’s details are questioned, ‘wh’ conjunctions are used.
- These include what, which, who(m), where, when, how or why, as well as whose [noun], which [noun], how many/much [noun], and how [modifier].
- Note that the “answer” to these “questions” may or may not be known by the subject (the context should make this clear).
When the embedded clause expresses a general truth like an inclination or a maxim, indefinite linkers are used.
- These include whatever, whichever, whoever, wherever, whenever, etc., as well as any time, every time, anywhere, everywhere, etc.

Consider how the same basic sentence in this example can have different meanings depending on the featured crux:

“Evelyn didn’t know that the event had ended.” ← The event has ended, but Evelyn was unaware of this fact.
“Evelyn didn’t know whether the event had ended.” ← The event may or may not have ended already, and Evelyn is aware of both possibilities but is uncertain either way.
“Evelyn didn’t know when the event had ended.” ← Evelyn knows the event has ended, but just doesn’t know the exact time it ended.

Cruxes should always be the first part of a Content Clause.

The Subordinate Clause

A Content Clause is still a clause, meaning it must have a subject and a predicate (which at the very least includes a verb). Content Clauses should always be structured as declaratives, even if they convey an interrogative meaning; there should be no subject-auxiliary inversion (this means that the subject should always come before the entire verb string). However, the ending punctuation can still be a question mark.

For example:

correct: “Could you tell me when the technician will get here?”
incorrect: “~~Could you tell me when will the technician get here~~?”

For Content Clauses are a little different in that their verb strings should start with a Full Infinitive, as in “He just can’t wait for the package to arrive!”

In the case of Reported Speech and for unreal Content Clauses, the verb string should be backshifted.

Sentence Order

Content Clauses should be placed in the host clauses wherever any equivalent noun phrase would go. For example, instead of “Quincy asked me a favor yesterday,” a more specific sentence featuring a Content Clause might be “Quincy asked me if I could help him move yesterday.”

While the crux is typically positioned where the embedded clause begins, we can instead place ‘wh’ cruxes at the very beginning of a sentence where the main verb is a bridge verb in order to make that sentence interrogative. For example, “Where do you suppose she left her wallet?” (compared to a similar “I wonder where she left her wallet,” or “I suppose (that) she left her wallet next to the fridge.”)

Applications

Content Clauses have many applications. The ones listed here are the embedded clauses topics in which English learners tend to study in most curricula. But there are certainly plenty of applications of Content Clauses that do not fit into these categories.

After Cognitive Verbs

It’s common to use a Content Clauses after verbs like think, know, believe, wonder, expect, suspect, suppose, guess, remember, forget, hope, wish, and other verbs that express cognition. For example:

“I bet Charlie was scared.”
“Do you ever wonder what your purpose is?”
“Always remember that I love you.”
“Let’s hope for tomorrow to have better weather.”

The same is true for verbs of perception, like see, hear, feel, sense, etc.

A couple particular applications for Content Clauses following cognitive verbs are following the Introductory It and with Wishes & Regrets.

The Introductory It

Some sentences begin with the pronoun it, which actually refers to a nominal expression (such as a Content Clause) toward the end of the sentence. This sentence starter is called the ‘introductory it‘. Here are a couple examples:

“It seems incredible that turtles can live so long!”
“It‘s hard to know when Timmy is joking.”

The Content Clauses here are functionally the subjects of their sentences. But since “That turtles can live so long seems incredible,” and “When Timmy is joking is hard to know,” sound awkward (even though they are grammatically correct), this structure of following the introductory it helps the sentences flow better.

The introductory it, when partnered with BE and an adjective that conveys speculation or necessity, can add modality to its following Content Clause (in lieu of modal verbs). For example, “It’s possible that I’ve lost my keys,” expresses likelihood, while “It is imperative that you return her call immediately,” (featuring a subjunctive Content Clause) expresses a requirement.

Wishes & Regrets

Many expressions of Wishes & Regrets have cognitive verbs like wish, hope, prefer, or imagine in their main clause, followed by Content Clauses. For example:

“I wish that I was taller.”
“Imagine if we had never met.”

Since such sentences convey the unreal mood, the Content Clauses should be backshifted.

Revelations

When expressing that something is revealed, it’s common to use Content Clauses following verbs that indicate a revelation. These may be receptive verbs like discover, find out, learn, or realize, or sharing verbs like announce, demonstrate, display, expose, reveal, show, teach, etc. Note that some of these may overlap with cognitive verbs (as with realize) or speech verbs (as with announce).

For example:

“His hunched posture shows that he feels guilty.”
“I never found out whether she prefers chocolate or vanilla.”
“My parents taught me that a penny saved is a penny earned.”

When the revelation concerns an action that has already been done, then the verb of the Content Clause should be set further back in the past than the verb of the host clause: if the revelatory verb is in the present tense, then the Content Clause should either be Present Perfect or some past tense; if the revelatory verb is in the past, then the Content Clause should be Past Perfect.

Some sharing verbs, like show or teach, might be followed by an indirect object if the revelation is shared with someone in particular. But if the revelation is generally for everyone, then no indirect object is needed.

Reported Speech

In Reported Speech, a previously-expressed idea is repeated in a new context. Grammatically, the earlier idea is voiced as an embedded Content Clause while the host clause reflects the adjusted context (usually here and now). These Content Clauses usually follow say and other reporting verbs like ask, demand, inform, announce, wonder, mention, claim, agree, suggest, etc.

Most declarative Reported Speech sentences use that or the null linker as their crux. But sometimes — especially for Reported Questions — if, whether, or some interrogative ‘wh’ words are used instead.

Here are a few examples:

“Tyrone said that he was ready for a change.”
“Yesterday, Amanda asked me where all the paperclips had gone.”
“My boss demands that I complete the project by Friday.”
“He asked if she had been here before.”
“I was just saying that this could turn into a problem.”

The first parts of these sentences establish the situation while the bolded second parts are rehashed thoughts (i.e. speech that is now being reported).

Indirect Questions

Indirect Questions are ways to express an interrogative idea beyond the typical question structures. Some of these are relaying questions that have already been voiced to a new context and perhaps with some new information, and thus overlap with Reported Speech. We see a couple examples of Reported Questions in “Yesterday, Amanda asked me where all the paperclips had gone,” and “He asked if she had been here before.”

Other types of Indirect Questions include polite requests or inquiries. These start with some polite expression followed by an active noun phrase like a Content Clause. For example:

“Would you mind if I opened a window?”
“Could you please tell me who the owner is?”
“Please let me know whether there’s anything I can do to help.”
“Do you mind if I ask what the problem is?”

Polite Questions seem less forceful and more deferential than straightforward questions, and thus are used when the speaker wants to avoid offending or pressuring the listener. They can be used to request favors, ask gentle inquiries, or present questions in a formal setting.

Pseudo-Cleft Sentences

A ‘WH’ Content Clause can be used as a subject, followed by BE, followed by a predicative nominal (which could take the form of yet another Content Clause). For example:

“What I’d like to know is who made this mess!”
“What happened was that I accidentally let the dog out.”
“Who Jane would meet that night would be a big surprise.”
“What Adebayo did was to practice until he could get it right.”

These are sometimes mistakenly referred to as cleft sentences, but the structure is not quite the same.

Advanced Concepts

Bridge Verbs

Bridge verbs are a small subclass of generic cognitive verbs and speech verbs that, when featured in the main clause of a sentence, directly connect ‘wh’ words to the embedded Content Clause (which is the direct object of the bridge verb). This makes bridge verbs serve as linkers in addition to verbs.

What really makes bridge verbs special is that they allow ‘wh’ cruxes to be extracted to the beginning of the sentence in order to form a question that still relates to the Content Clause. This is known as wh-fronting, wh-extraction, or wh-raising. For instance:

“Why does Shannon think (that) I ate the last cookie?”
“Who did Bill say couldn’t make the meeting?”
“How do you suppose they got the couch through the door?”

The first example could be interpreted two different ways: 1) asking about the reason that Shannon came to her conclusion; or 2) asking about what Shannon thinks the reason is for eating the last cookie. Corresponding possible answers may be 1) “Because she knows you were the last person near the cookie jar.” or 2) “Because you were so hungry after skipping lunch.” The other two examples above only align with the second interpretation — that the question is ultimately about the Content Clause, not the main clause.

Only bridge verbs can link fronted ‘wh’ words to their embedded clauses. Contrast this with examples of non-bridge verbs:

“Why does Shannon understand (that) I ate the last cookie?”
“Who did Bill whisper couldn’t make the meeting?”
“How did you detect they got the couch through the door?”

It’s debatable whether the first two of these examples have technically correct grammar. But even if they do, they come across as clunky and awkward. While the third example works well enough, it’s asking about the listener’s ability to detect the event, rather than the mover’s ability to move the couch. Since these verbs fail to connect the ‘wh’ word to the Content Clause, none of them are bridge verbs.

Bridge verbs is not a rigidly-defined category, so there is no definitive list of bridge verbs. Insights has identified agree, believe, claim, doubt, expect, feel, imagine, insist, propose, recommend, request, say, suppose, and think as reliable bridge verbs.

The last thing to know about bridge verbs is that — for declarative Content Clauses — the [null] linker can be used instead of that. For example, “Bill said Julia couldn’t make the meeting,” = “Bill said that Julia couldn’t make the meeting.” This option is consistent across all bridge verbs, but there are plenty of non-bridge verbs that can omit that as well.

Fused Relatives

The difference between a Relative Clause and a Content Clause is sometimes very thin. In fact, the two structures can be used to communicate similar — or sometimes even identical — meanings. Take for example:

“That was the day when I first met my husband.” (relative clause)
“That was when I first met my husband.” (content clause)

In the second sentence, the relative linker when is fused with its referent ‘the day’. As a result, the clause no longer modifies the predicative nominal, but now is the predicative nominal.

Content Clauses that are created out of Relative Clauses are called ‘fused relatives. See the Relative Clauses page for more.

Adverbial vs. Relative vs. Content Clauses

Among the list of Subordinating Conjunctions are when and where, which means that certain Adverbial Clauses, Relative Clauses, and Content Clauses might look similar. Let’s take a look at two sets of examples:

Time Clauses:
- “When the going gets tough, the tough get going.” ← as an Adverbial Clause
- “This might be the day when the going gets tough.” ← as a Relative Clause
- “This might be when the going gets tough.” ← as a Content Clause

Place Clauses:
- “There weren’t any tornadoes where I grew up.” ← as an Adverbial Clause
- “This is the small town where I grew up.” ← as a Relative Clause
- “Let me show you where I grew up.” ← as a Content Clause

For each of these sets, the three subordinate clauses look identical. In fact, they even all have the same meaning. The difference is how they are used in the sentence — specifically, what role they serve within their host clauses. The Adverbial Clauses act like adverbs (modifying verb phrases), the Relative Clauses act like adjectives (modifying noun phrases), and the Content Clauses act like nouns.

The type of subordinate clause is not determined by its meaning, but rather by its function.

Teaching Tips

What are Clauses?

Content Clauses are rarely taught as a grammar topic on their own. Instead, students are likely to learn Content Clauses through some of its more specific applications. Reported Speech might be the topic in which students first encounter Content Clauses.

Teaching Content Clauses as its own topic be helpful for English learners. But on the other hand, teachers might find it unnecessary.

In either case, Insights to English recommends teaching what exactly a clause is when students first encounter Content Clauses, if not before. Part of structuring an instance of Reported Speech correctly requires an understanding of what clauses are and how an embedded clause can fit into a host clause.

If it helps, you may want to draw links to other embedded clauses like Conditionals or Relative Clauses that learners might already be familiar with by that point.

No Inversion

Yes/No Questions and Predicate Questions — the two most common Question Forms that English speakers use, and the questions forms that English students are likely to learn first — undergo what is known as subject-auxiliary inversion, which means that the leading auxiliary verb comes before the subject. For example:

“Are you hungry, yet?” (As opposed to “~~You are hungry, yet?~~“)
“Where are they going?” (As opposed to “~~Where they are going?~~“)

Since subject-auxiliary inversion is featured in the most common question forms, some English learners are likely to apply subject-auxiliary inversion to every interrogative clause, or even every clause that begins with a ‘WH’ Word. However, Content Clauses should not undergo subject-auxiliary inversion.

It may take a lot of reminding and a lot of practice for some learners to get used to forming Content Clauses with the correct word order.

They’re Noun Phrases

If Content Clauses start to look like big scary things, remind students that Content Clauses are just special kinds of noun phrases. They can serve the same roles as most nouns, including as subjects, direct objects, predicative nominals, etc. If it helps, try temporarily replacing a Content Clause with a pronoun or with a generic noun like ‘the person’, ‘the time’, ‘the place’, etc. to get a better understanding of the sentence as a whole.

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