Linguistic Overview
Pronouns are a small, closed lexical class, which means there are only an exclusive set of words that qualify as pronouns, and new pronouns are rarely if ever added to the English language.
Function
Pronouns carry minimal meaning on their own. Rather, they refer to a noun phrase that should be evident from the context. The noun phrase may be: a) just a lexical noun; b) one or more nouns together with determiners and possibly specifying modifiers; c) a Content Clause; d) alternative nominals like Gerund phrases or Infinitive phrases; or e) something that cannot be put into words, as with Expletive Pronouns.
The nominal that a pronoun refers to is called the referent. Referents are commonly called antecedents when those nominals are expressed before their pronouns. But some referents might not be voiced until after their pronouns. Other referents are not voiced at all, either because they are obvious from the context or because the pronouns have a general or unspecified application.
Pro-Forms
Pronouns are a subset of pro-forms, which are various types of substitute words. Other pro-forms include pro-adverbs, pro-determiners, and pro-verbs. Naturally, these various classifications serve as different parts of speech, but otherwise act very similarly to pronouns. Among pro-forms, pronouns by far include the largest set of words and are used more regularly. Since other pro-forms have much in common with pronouns (and are sometimes even mistaken for pronouns), some pro-forms are featured on this page.
Unique Properties
Pronouns are unique in that they are the only type of words in English that can have gender or morphological cases.
GENDER: Notably, we use different Personal Pronouns depending on whether the referent is considered female, male, or other. While many other languages have gendered nouns, the only gendered words in English are a handful of pronouns.
CASES: Many pronouns take different forms depending on whether they act as a subject or an object in a sentence, or sometimes with other considerations. These are known as morphological cases. Many other languages have different cases for their nouns, and their nouns may take different forms depending on which case they apply to. In English, nouns do not take different forms depending on case… but pronouns do.
Catalog
Pronouns can be categorized according to their purpose and how they represent their referents.
- Personal Pronouns represent nouns that have already been established in context.
- Demonstrative Pronouns represent nouns that are evident from the context.
- Interrogative Pronouns represent specific nouns that are unknown.
- Relative Pronouns merge the roles of Personal Pronouns, linkers, and modifiers.
- Indefinite Pronouns vaguely represent nouns that do not have to be specified.
- Expletive Pronouns take the place of nominals when no particular noun is appropriate or needed.
Personal Pronouns
Standard Personal Pronouns
Personal Pronouns are used to represent a particular noun that has already been established (whether because it has been previously mentioned or is otherwise clear from the context). Most apply to a person or a group of people, but they (especially ‘it’) may apply to animals, objects, and other types of nouns as well.
The right Personal Pronoun for any situation depends on person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd), number (singular or plural), and sometimes gender (feminine, masculine, neuter, or non-specified).
- 1st-person refers to the speaker. 2nd-person refers to person(s) spoken to. 3rd-person refers to anyone else.
- Gender only comes into account for 3rd-person singular pronouns.
- 1st-person plural could mean I + you; I + them; or I + you + them.
- The non-specified gender may represent an unknown person (instead of ‘he/she’), a known person whose gender is unknown, or a person who has not identified as a specific gender.
The appropriate Personal Pronoun also depends on case. They may take one of the following roles:
- Subjects or predicative nominals
- Objects, which include direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of modifier phrases (such as prepositional phrases)
- Reflexives, for an object that is the same as the subject
- Substantive Possessives, which are standalone and represent both the possessor and the possessee
- Determiner Possessives, which only represent the possessor — these serve the role of determiners, rather than nominals, within the sentence (and thus are debatable in their status as actual pronouns)
Here’s the full breakdown of common Personal Pronouns:
| Subjective | Objective | Reflexive |
Substantive Possessive |
Determiner Possessive |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
1st-Person |
Singular |
I |
me |
myself |
mine |
my |
|
Plural |
we |
us |
ourselves |
ours |
our |
|
|
2nd-Person Singular or Plural |
you |
you |
yourself / yourselves |
yours |
your |
|
|
3rd-Person
Singular |
Feminine |
she |
her |
herself |
hers |
her |
|
Masculine |
he |
him |
himself |
his |
his |
|
|
Neuter |
it |
it |
itself |
its |
its |
|
|
Non-Specified |
they |
them |
themself |
theirs |
their |
|
|
3rd-Person Plural |
they |
them |
themselves |
theirs |
their |
|
|
Pseudo Personal Pronouns |
||||||
|
Generic |
Formal |
one |
one |
oneself |
one’s |
one’s |
|
Familiar |
you |
you |
yourself |
yours |
your |
|
|
Unfamiliar |
they |
them |
themselves |
theirs |
their |
|
|
Interrogative |
who |
whom |
– |
whose |
whose |
|
While ‘one’ and ‘who’ (and their related forms) are not typically regarded as Personal Pronouns, they are included in this table due to their shared property of changing forms depending on class.
Some dialects will have additional options for pronouns, especially for 2nd-person plural (as in y’all or youse). Other variations include the reflexive hisself or theirselves.
Impersonal Pronouns
Generic pronouns — sometimes referred to as ‘impersonal pronouns’ — function much like standard Personal Pronouns, except that they do not refer to anyone in particular. They are sometimes used for basic or universal statements, as in “One can never be too careful,” “It makes you think,” or “That’s what they want you to believe.”
One, you, and they — and each of their various forms — can be used as generic Personal Pronouns.
Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal Pronouns are similar to reflexive pronouns, except that multiple nouns have an effect on the other nouns in their collection, instead of on themselves. The only two reflexive nouns in English are each other and one another.
If “Jack and Jill blame themselves,” that probably means that either a) Jack blames Jack, and Jill blames Jill; or b) the two of them blame the pair collectively. But if “Jack and Jill blame each other,” that means Jack blames Jill, and Jill blames Jack.
Each other is the more common option in casual speech, but one another is more likely to be used when there are more than two people/things. However, these two terms are virtually interchangeable. They can also be used as the possessive forms each other’s and one another’s.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns are ones that emphasize a noun that is clearly evident. In many cases, the noun is literally present in the same space as the speaker and/or the audience and can be pointed to.
There are only four Demonstrative Pronouns in common use, and they are among the first words that English language learners tend to learn.
|
this |
that |
|
these |
those |
These four words can also be used as determiners when they precede nouns. Consider “This is heavy” (pronoun) vs. “This box is heavy” (determiner). The meaning of the demonstrative is nearly the same; only the role within its sentence has changed slightly.
Interrogative/Relative Pro-Forms
Interrogative Pro-Forms are used when the represented noun is unknown but sought out.
Relative Linkers are used specifically in Relative Clauses where they serve multiple roles, one of which is referencing a previously-mentioned noun phrase.
While these two types of words serve very different purposes, they pull from the same set of wh-words:
Pronouns
- who(m) — referencing people, or sometimes animals, organizations, or anthropomorphized beings
- what — referencing non-person nouns (interrogative only)
- which — referencing non-person nouns (relative); referencing a subset out of a group of nouns already established (interrogative)
Pro-Adverbs
- when — referencing a time
- where — referencing a location
- how — referencing the manner of a verb (interrogative only); referencing the extent of a following modifier (interrogative only)
- why — referencing a reason (interrogative only)
Pro-Determiners
- which — referencing a subset out of a following category nouns (interrogative only)
- whose — referencing a person or thing that possesses a following noun
- how much/many — referencing the amount/number of a following noun (interrogative only)
Some of these pro-forms (especially which, when, and where) can also be used as subordinating conjunctions at the head of Content Clauses or Adverbial Clauses.
Though it is rare in modern English, -ever pro-forms can sometimes be used interrogatives (as in “Wherever did I leave my keys?”). See the Indefinite Pronouns section for more.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns do not have particular referent, but rather can be applied to whatever within the context meets the qualifications. Similar to Interrogatives/Relatives, the words that are commonly considered Indefinite Pronouns are not always pronouns and may technically be pro-adverbs.
Extensive Indefinites
| Universal | Selective | Elective | Deferential | Negative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
General |
all / each |
some |
any |
– |
none |
|
Thing |
everything |
something |
anything |
whatever |
nothing |
|
Person |
everyone / everybody |
someone / somebody |
anyone / anybody |
whoever / whomever |
no one / nobody |
|
Place |
everywhere |
somewhere |
anywhere |
wherever |
nowhere |
|
Time |
forever |
sometime |
anytime |
whenever |
never |
|
Pair |
both |
– |
either |
whichever |
neither |
Elective pronouns can be noncommittal, deferential (like -ever pronouns), or dubious. Although selective pronouns and elective pronouns are similar in meaning, English speakers are more likely to use an any- pronoun for questions and when following a negator like not; and use a some- pronoun for affirmative clauses.
The Indefinite Pronouns representing people can also take on a possessive form, as in “everyone’s” or “nobody’s”, etc.
Quantifier Indefinites
Other Indefinite Pronouns are ones that reference a number or amount of a certain noun (even if that quantity is imprecise).
- Uncountables: little, less, more, enough, plenty, much, most, all
- Countables: one, few, fewer, several, more, many, most, each, all
While these terms are more commonly used as determiners before a noun, they can be substantive (meaning they can be expressed without their nouns and take the place of those noun). For example, “Many have paid dearly for my mistake,” or “She has revealed her secret to few.”
Expletive Pronouns
The pronouns it and there can be used to function as a noun in the sentence without representing or referencing any noun at all. That is, they serve a structural purpose but carry no meaning. Consider the following:
- “It might rain today.”
- “There are muffins in the break room.”
There (followed by ‘is’ or ‘are’) establishes the existence of a following noun. Meanwhile, it draws attention for a verb that doesn’t need a semantic subject.
These are called Expletive Pronouns, or sometimes ‘dummy pronouns’.
Notes
Determiners and Adjectives
Determiners do not accompany pronouns like they would nouns. Similarly, pronouns cannot be modified by pre-nominal adjectives, and most cannot be modified by post-nominal adjectives, either. Instead, since pronouns tend to replace entire noun phrases, they typically incorporate any determiners and attributive adjectives (at least any specifying ones) that are understood to be a part of that nominal.
- eg: “The tall man ran quickly,” could be shortened to “He ran quickly,” but not “
The tall heran quickly,” or even “The heran quickly.” Here, the pronoun ‘he’ is understood to incorporate not just ‘man’, but ‘the tall man’. - An exception to the rule is that most extensive Indefinite Pronouns can be modified by post-nominal adjectives in order to make them more specific, as in “nowhere special” or “anything useful”.
Other types of adjectives can be used to modify pronouns, though. The most common type is predicative adjectives, as in “She seems nice,” where ‘nice’ modifies ‘she’.
Singular vs. Plural Agreement
Subject-verb agreement dictates that the verb reflects the count of the noun. For instance, we say “he is” (not “he are“) and “those were” (not “those was“). However, there are a couple of pronouns that break this rule.
The Personal Pronouns you and they can have either a singular usage or a plural usage. Regardless, the following verb should always behave as if these pronouns were plural. Even when they take on a singular meaning, we never say something like “you was” or “they is“. This can sometimes lead to confusion when the referent is ambiguous. (Does “You need to leave,” mean that only the person the speaker is speaking to needs to leave, or that everyone else with that person also needs to leave?)
On a similar note, many Indefinite Pronouns are considered uncountable and should thereby be treated as grammatically singular. For instance, we would say “everyone is”, even though the pronoun indicates multiple people.
Singular ‘They’
In post-modern English, they is used as singular among some communities who choose to identify or acknowledge some members as gender-nonconforming. Other English speakers do not engage in this practice, or even accept it. Regardless, it is important to realize that the singular they has precedent; it was used before this post-modern practice and has continued to be applied in other uses, which we will explore here.
The singular they can be used if a) the identity of referent noun is generally unknown, b) the count of the referent noun is unknown, or c) the gender of the referent noun is unknown.
For example, suppose my friend Layla tells me that her cousin Alex is coming into town. As ‘Alex’ is common for both female and male names, I might refer to Layla’s cousin with the pronouns they, them, their, etc. until I learn whether she or he would be more suitable. For another example, suppose a client is sending a representative to my company’s headquarters. Not only do I not know any names, I don’t even know if the representative is a single person or a team. Therefore, I would use they to refer to them, since it is appropriate for both singular and plural nouns.
Traditionally, some grammarians insisted upon using ‘he or she’, ‘he/she’, or even ‘s/he’ when the identity or at least the gender of the referent person is ambiguous. While this is a legitimate practice that many people still use, it does come with some issues. First of all, using one of these slash forms gets clunky and burdensome if used serval times in a short timeframe, or in a limited written space. Second, as it assumes that the referent is only one person, it’s not sufficient when the count is unknown.
On the flip side, there is a downside to using the singular they in that the count and the gender are both ambiguous; even if the speaker knows the count and the gender, it may not be clear to the listeners.
Advanced Concepts
Other Personal Pronouns
- Archaic Thou: English has an archaic term thou for the 2nd-person singular. The forms of this word are thou (subjective), thee (objective), thyself (reflexive), thine (substantive possessive), and thy (determiner possessive). Traditionally, thou was considered more familiar (while you was more formal). While thou is far less common today, it is sometimes used in certain religious communities.
- Non-Standard Possessives:
- In older English, mine was sometimes used in place of my as a determiner when the following noun began with a vowel sound, as in “Curse mine eyes!”. This practice has since fallen into obscurity.
- In certain UK dialects, speakers might use me instead of my, as in “I’ve bruised me elbow.”
- 2nd-Person Plurals: Certain dialects have unique forms of the plural you, as in y’all or all y’all (American South), yous/youse (American Northeast, Scotland, New Zealand), or yinz (Appalanchian). Other English speakers may add a collective noun after you, as in ‘you all’, ‘you guys/gals’, or ‘you lot’.
Cases
Many English grammar resources do not list the names of grammatical cases, since they only apply to Personal Pronouns. Cases are more important in some other languages than they are in English. But in case you’re curious, here are the names of our pronoun cases:
- Nominative — subjects & predicative nominals
- Oblique — objects (including reflexives)
- Genitive — possessives
In addition, you (both singular and plural) can be used in the Vocative case to call out and address someone.
Predicative Nominal Pronouns
When a personal pronoun serves as a predicative nominal (meaning it follows a Linking Verb and equates back to the subject), which case should it be in? Subjective or objective?
- When revealing yourself, should you say “It is I!” or “It is me!”?
- When responding to “May I speak with Helen, please?”, should you say “This is she.” or “This is her.”?
Insights to English would argue that the subjective case is technically the correct way to do. However, so many modern native English speakers use the objective case instead that it has now become acceptable. The best option might depend on the environment you’re in and the expectations that come with it.
Other Pro-Forms
Most of the terms featured on this page are pronouns, but some of them may technically be non-pronoun words.
- Determiner possessives like my and their are typically categorized as determiners (or pro-determiners).
- Demonstratives like this and those may be either pronouns or determiners (the meaning is virtually the same either way; only the role they serve within the sentence is different).
- Interrogatives/Relatives like when and where are often referred to as pronouns in educational contexts. However, from a linguistic standpoint, these are pro-adverbs. The same is true for similar words, such as whenever, anywhere, whence, and whither.
Here are some other pro-forms that were not featured on this page:
- The affirmative counterparts to where, when, how, and why are also pro-adverbs. These include here & there, now & then, thus & thereby, and herefore & therefore.
- The terms so and such can be pro-adverbs or pro-adjectives.
- Do (not as an auxiliary verb) can be a pro-verb, taking the place of a different, already-understood verb.
Lexical Classes (Parts of Speech)
Noun Phrases: Determiners • Adjectives • Nouns • Pronouns
Verb Strings: Auxiliary Verbs {Modal Verbs} • Adverbs • Verbs
Subsets of Verbs: Linking Verbs • Stative Verbs • Irregular Verbs
Linkers: Conjunctions • Adpositions
