Linguistic Overview
Participles are a type of non-finite verb forms.
- Non-finite verbs cannot function as the main verb of a clause without the aid of an auxiliary verb.
- Non-finite verbs can be verbals: words serving as nouns or modifiers while retaining their core meaning and certain properties of verbs.
Participles are verb forms with an -ing or -ed/en suffix. Nearly all words with such suffixes are participles, though there are some rare exceptions, including words like ‘building’, ‘painting’, and ‘writing’ in their common noun usage.
The different types of participles signify the style of participation on the part of the pertinent noun.
Explanation of Terms
By ‘pertinent noun’, we mean whichever noun has the greatest bearing on the verb form, or vice-versa. When the participle acts as the main verb, the ‘pertinent noun’ is the subject; when the participle acts as an adjective, the ‘pertinent noun’ is the referent noun modified by said adjective.
When participles are verbals (meaning they are the nucleus of noun phrases or modifier phrases), there is still an understanding that a verb happens, has already happened, or tends to happen — even though that verb may not be the focus of the sentence since it is not the main verb. For example, in “The frustrated customer filed another complaint,” the verb ‘frustrate’ has already happened to the customer even though in this sentence it is used as an adjective. Throughout this article, you may see the term verb used in this way, but it will be distinguished from the main verb when necessary.
Most importantly, Insights to English considers ‘participles’ to be defined by their form together with their meaning, regardless of usage.
Alternative Definitions
Some sources define ‘Participles’ according to their usage within a sentence. It’s common to see the term participles as pertaining specifically to verbal adjectives in certain contexts, then to verb forms for Continuous tenses, Perfect tenses, and Passive Voice in other contexts.
Notably, Gerunds are sometimes distinguished apart from Active Participles.
However, since there is consistency in meaning across all applications of a participle, it seems to make more sense to identify them as variations of the same term. Furthermore, doing so for English learners can help them draw connections between related grammar topics.
Types of Participles
There are 2 or 3 types of participles, depending on where one draws distinctions. The first is Active Participles. Next, there are Perfect Participles and Passive Participles, and whether they are two different forms or are two variations of a single form is up for debate. There is plenty of overlap between Perfect and Passive Participles, though there are some minor differences as well.
Active Participles
Active Participles — aka Progressive Participles — express that the pertinent noun actively engages in the verb. Perhaps that verb is currently in progress, perhaps it is an ongoing situation, or perhaps the noun can be characterized by its frequent use of that verb. Active Participles end with the -ing suffix.
Active Participles are used in Continuous Tenses, Verb Patterns, Active Adjectives, Gerunds, and Participial Phrases.
Active Participles have traditionally been called ‘Present Participles‘. However, this term is misleading since not all Active Participles take place in the present, and not all verbs that take place in the present should be in the Active Participle form.
See the Active Participles page for more details and applications.
Perfect & Passive Participles
Perfect and Passive Participles express the effects of a verb that began previously. Often that verb has been completed, but it may also still be underway; in either case, the effect is more important than the event of the verb or its cause.
| In the case of Perfect Participles, the pertinent noun has (directly or indirectly) caused the verb. | In the case of Passive Participles, the pertinent noun is affected by the verb. |
Regular Perfect and Passive Participles end with the -ed suffix. Irregular verbs may have an -en ending or undergo some other morphological change. The Perfect Participle and the Passive Participle are almost always the exact same form, though in rare cases there is a slight difference between the two (as in ‘sunk’ for perfect, but ‘sunken’ for passive).
| Perfect Participles are used in Perfect Tenses, in Participial Phrases, and with Perfect Modals. | Passive Participles are used in Passive Voice, certain Verb Patterns called Causatives, Passive Adjectives, and Participial Phrases. |
Perfect and Perfect Participles have traditionally been called ‘Past Participles‘. However, this term is misleading since not all of them take place in the past, and not all verbs that take place in the past should be in the Perfect or Perfect Participle form.
See the Perfect/Passive Participles page for more details and applications.
Applications
Participles can be used as verbs, nouns, or modifiers. Any time a participle is not used as the main verb of a sentence, it is regarded as a verbal. It’s important to note that Active, Perfect, and Passive Participles do not have mutually exclusive meanings, and thus more than one type of participle may be used together.
as the Main Verb
Continuous/Progressive Tenses use the auxiliary verb BE followed by an Active Participle. Here, the focus is on the subject carrying out the verb during the relevant time.
- eg: “They are racing toward the finish line.”
- eg: “She was studying biology when I saw her last.”
Perfect Tenses use the auxiliary verb HAVE followed by a Perfect Participle. Here, the focus is on the result of the verb.
- eg: “We have tried everything we could think of (but it looks like we’re stuck).”
- eg: “I had forgotten to lock the door (so the burglar considered it an easy target).”
The Passive Voice uses the auxiliary verb BE followed by a Passive Participle. Here, the focus is on what happens to the subject.
- eg: “The mall was demolished last week.”
- eg: “You’ve been given another chance.”
|
Continuous/Progressive
Tenses |
BE + Active Participle |
(carrying out the verb) |
|
Perfect
Tenses |
HAVE + Perfect Participle |
(result of the verb) |
|
Passive Voice |
BE + Passive Participle |
(effect on the subject) |
in Verb Patterns
Verb Patterns are the combination of a main verb and a second verb, a non-finite verb that serves as a Verb Complement. That second, non-finite verb is usually either an Active Participle or a Full Infinitive. The Active Participle is more likely to be used when that verb is real (as opposed to hypothetical) or when that verb is in progress or occurs generally around the same time as the main verb.
- eg: “Will you stop complaining!”
- eg: “I don’t mind driving her to the airport.”
Although it’s far less common, Passive Participles can be used in Verb Patterns. These form constructions known as Causatives. In the Causative Structure, the subject initiates the cause of the verb but is not necessarily the one who executes the verb. The focus is on what is being done to the direct object.
- eg: “When did you get your kitchen renovated?”
- eg: “I want that scoundrel removed from the premises immediately!”
as an Adjective
Participle Adjectives behave the same way as most other adjectives. For instance, they can come before the noun they modify, or they can come after a Linking Verb. Active Adjectives suggest that the referent noun either carries out the verb of the participle in that moment, or that the noun is known for doing that verb, perhaps often. Passive Adjectives suggest that the referent has been affect by the verb of the participle (probably carried out by a different agent, and perhaps through a different context).
- eg: “My annoying little brother is here.”
- eg: “You found the hidden treasure!”
- eg: “Her keys are missing.”
heading a Modifier Phrase
A participle combined with complements (like direct or indirect objects) and/or with modifiers (like adverbs or prepositional phrases) form what are known as Participial Phrases. In the case of Perfect Participial Phrases, the word ‘having’ typically comes before the participle at the start of the phrase. Participial Phrases can modify nouns, verbs phrases, or even entire clauses.
- eg: “Looking around the room, she felt there must be a clue somewhere.”
- eg: “I found the doll buried under a pile of toys.”
- eg: “Having completed university, Jesse began to seek employment.”
as a Noun
The Active Participle can serve the role of a noun. These are often called Gerunds, although some definitions of Gerunds are more specific (in which case Gerunds would be a subset of participial nouns). Participial nouns often represent an activity (as opposed to an action).
- eg: “Swimming is an excellent exercise.”
- eg: “I’m sick of all this talking in circles!”
Teaching Tips
Better Terminology
First of all, although it’s common practice to use the terms ‘Present Participle’ and ‘Past Participle’, these terms are confusing. For some applications, they are even inaccurate and misleading. We strongly advise that teachers instead use ‘Active Participle’ and either ‘Perfect Participle’ or ‘Passive Participle’, since these terms better reflect both the meaning that the participles convey and the grammar topics that feature them.
You may use ‘Perfect Participle’ and ‘Passive Participle’ interchangeably, or just pick one and stick with it. While Insights likes to recognize the difference between them, that distinction is probably insignificant for English learners in most cases.
Drawing Connections
Second, it may be helpful to draw a connection between multiple applications of the same type of participle.
For instance, you may notice that the Perfect/Passive Participle is featured in Perfect tenses, Passive Voice, and Passive Adjectives. But it’s not just a verb form that they have in common; we can also see that all three applications focus more on the effects of the verb than on the incident of the verb itself.
Similarly, Continuous tenses, -ing Verb Patterns, and Active Adjectives all express that the verb takes place in or around the given moment.
Further Reading
| Related Concepts | Applied Grammar Topics |
|---|---|
Infinitives & Participles
Types
Bare Infinitives • Full Infinitives • Active Participles • Perfect/Passive Participles
Full Infinitive topics
Active Participle topics
Active Adjectives • Future Continuous • Gerunds • Participial Phrases • Past Continuous • Present Continuous • Present Perfect Continuous • Verb Patterns
Perfect Participle topics
Future Perfect • Perfect Modals • Participial Phrases • Past Perfect • Present Perfect • Present Perfect Continuous
Passive Participle topics
Bibliography
- Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. Longman Group Ltd, 1992.
